The Pillars of Non-Dual Reality
In the vast and rigorous tradition of Advaita Vedānta, two terms stand as the absolute foundation of all spiritual inquiry: Brahman and Ātman. While these words can initially seem like abstract philosophical markers, they are, in fact, pointers to the most intimate and undeniable truths of our existence. Traditional Advaita, as systematized by the great sage Ādi Śaṅkara in the 8th century, is fundamentally a methodology designed to reveal that these two apparently different entities are, in reality, one and the same.
The core message of this teaching is famously summarized by the dictum: brahma satyam, jaganmithyā, jīvo brahmaiva nāparaḥ—”Brahman is the reality; the world is not in itself real; the individual self is none other than Brahman”. To understand this “Great Equation,” we must first clarify what is meant by these two essential terms through the lens of scriptural testimony (śabda pramāṇa) and Śaṅkara’s commentaries.
Brahman: The Boundless Absolute
The word Brahman derives from the Sanskrit root bṛh, which means “to grow great or strong”. Etymologically, it suggests a “bigness” that is not qualified by any other noun; it is “big” without limitation, or infinitely big. In the scriptures, Brahman refers to the universal Self, the Absolute, or the non-dual substratum of all that exists.
Because Brahman is the ultimate subject and is part-less and attribute-less (nirguṇa), it is famously difficult to describe using dualistic language. Śaṅkara emphasizes that Brahman is not a member of any species (jāti), has no properties (guṇa), does not perform actions (kriyā), and has no relationships (sambandha). Consequently, the scriptures must use specific pedagogical techniques to point toward its nature.
1. The Positive Definition (Svarūpa Lakṣaṇa) The Taittirīya Upaniṣad (II.1.1) provides perhaps the most significant “definition” of Brahman: satyaṃ jñānamanantaṃ brahma—”Brahman is Truth/Existence, Knowledge, and Infinity”. Śaṅkara explains in his bhāṣya (commentary) that these words are not adjectives in the usual sense, because Brahman has no attributes to qualify. Instead, they function as pointers (lakṣaṇa):
- Satyam indicates absolute existence that is never sublated; it is that which transcends past, present, and future.
- Jñānam refers to pure awareness or consciousness—not the act of knowing an object, but the very light of awareness itself.
- Anantam means limitlessness in terms of time, space, and objects.
2. The Negative Method (Neti, Neti) When a direct description is impossible, the scriptures resort to the famous “apophatic” method of the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad: neti, neti—”not this, not this”. Śaṅkara notes that this method seeks to describe the “Truth of truth” by eliminating every specification that the mind might attribute to reality, such as name, form, action, or quality. Once all erroneous superimpositions (adhyāsa) are negated, the substrate reality stands revealed.
Ātman: The Inner Self
While Brahman is the name given to the Absolute when speaking in a general or universal sense, Ātman is the term used to refer to that same reality as it applies to “you”—the apparent individual. It is often translated as the “Self” or the “soul,” though the latter can be misleading if it implies a separate, personal entity.
Śaṅkara defines Ātman as the Witness (sākṣin) of all activities. It is that “light” of Consciousness which enables the mind, senses, and body to function, yet it remains entirely unaffected by them, much like a lamp that illuminates a room regardless of the activities occurring within it.
The Three States of Consciousness (Avasthā Traya) A key method in Advaita for identifying the Ātman is the analysis of our daily experience in three states:
- Waking (jāgrat): Identification with the gross body and the external world.
- Dreaming (svapna): Identification with the subtle body and an internal mental world.
- Deep Sleep (suṣupti): A state of unmanifested ignorance where no objects are perceived.
The Ātman is that which persists through all three states as the unchanging observer. This reality behind the states is often called turīya (the “fourth”), which is not a separate state but the very background or “content” of the other three. Mantra 7 of the Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad explicitly defines this turīya as “imperceptible, transaction-less, not graspable… the essential ‘I’-experience… non-dual. This is the Self. This is to be understood”.
The Great Identity: Ātman is Brahman
The “fast track” to understanding Advaita lies in investigating the nature of the Self, which leads to the realization that Ātman is identical to Brahman. This identity is expressed in what are commonly referred to as the four Mahāvākyas (Great Statements) from the Vedas (although there are many more than these):
- Prajñānam brahma: “Consciousness is Brahman” (Aitareya Upaniṣad).
- Tat tvam asi: “That thou art” (Chāndogya Upaniṣad).
- Ayam ātmā brahma: “This Self is Brahman” (Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad).
- Ahaṃ brahmāsmi: “I am Brahman” (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad).
The Mirror and the Space Metaphors To explain how one non-dual reality can appear as many individuals (jīvas), Advaita uses two primary metaphors:
- The Pot-Space Metaphor (avaccheda vāda): Space is one and all-pervading. When space is “enclosed” by a pot, we speak of “pot-space.” If the pot is broken, the space does not “merge” with the total space—it was always the total space. Similarly, Ātman is “enclosed” by the body-mind only in appearance.
- The Reflection Metaphor (pratibimba vāda): The sun is one, but it can be reflected in many different pots of water. The reflections (chidābhāsa) appear different based on the clarity or movement of the water (the mind), but the original sun remains one and untouched.
Resolving the Paradox of the “I”
A common confusion arises when a seeker asks, “If the Self is actionless, how can I say ‘I am Brahman’?”. Śaṅkara addresses this in his commentary on the Bhagavad Gītā (2.21). He explains that the “I” we normally use refers to ahaṃkāra (the ego), which is a “mixture” of Consciousness and the inert mind.
The act of “knowing” that I am Brahman is a mental modification (akhaṇḍākāra vṛtti) that occurs in the intellect. While the pāramārthika (absolute) truth is that Ātman is not a knower, we use the vyāvahārika (empirical) intellect to gain the knowledge that destroys the ignorance of our true nature. This is illustrated by the story of the “tenth man”: ten men cross a river and think they have lost a companion because each forgets to count himself. When a bystander points to the leader and says, “You are the tenth,” the knowledge is immediate and direct (aparokṣa); he does not “become” the tenth, he simply recognizes a fact that was already true.
Conclusion: Beyond the Names
Ultimately, both “Ātman” and “Brahman” are concepts used within the transactional reality (vyavahāra) to guide the mind away from duality. Advaita uses the methodology of adhyāropa-apavāda—provisional attribution followed by subsequent rescission. We are told that “God created the world” (a dualistic statement) to lead us to “the world is a manifestation of Brahman,” and finally to the truth of ajāti vāda: that nothing has ever been born or created, and there is only the non-dual reality.
When Self-knowledge reaches its perfection, all words, scriptures, and even the distinction between Ātman and Brahman are dropped. As Śaṅkara writes in the Atmabodha: “All that is perceived or heard is Brahman and nothing else. Attaining the knowledge of the Reality, one sees the Universe as the non-dual Brahman, Existence-Knowledge-Bliss-Absolute”. The “I” that once searched for truth realizes that it is the truth it was seeking.