Explanation of key terms in Advaita – No. 2
If adhyāropa-apavāda is the most important term regarding the teaching method of Advata, adhyāsa is the most important term describing the essence of the teaching.
Adhyāsa: The Fundamental Error of Mistaken Identity
In the study of Advaita Vedānta, the term adhyāsa is arguably the most critical concept to grasp if one is to understand the human condition and the path to liberation. Often translated as “superimposition,” adhyāsa refers to the fundamental mistake of apprehending one thing as something else. It is the cognitive error of mixing up what is real (sat) with what is only apparently real (mithyā), thereby creating a sense of confusion that defines our everyday experience. This concept is so pivotal that Ādi Śaṅkara devoted the entire introduction of his commentary on the Brahmasūtras—known as the Adhyāsa Bhāṣya—to explaining its mechanics and implications.
The Definition and Mechanism of Superimposition
Śaṅkara defines adhyāsa as the manifestation of the nature of something in another thing where it does not actually exist. It is characterized as a “false cognition” (mithyā-pratyaya) that takes the form of a recollection of something seen previously. For adhyāsa to occur, there must be a real substratum (adhiṣṭhāna) that is partially known but specifically obscured.
The classic metaphor used to illustrate this is the rope and the snake. In the dim light of twilight, a traveler encounters a coiled rope on the path. Because the light is insufficient to reveal the object clearly, the traveler remains ignorant of the rope’s true identity. This partial ignorance allows the mind to project a remembered image of a snake onto the rope. The resulting experience of fear, anxiety, and the physical urge to flee is entirely real to the traveler, even though the snake has no objective reality whatsoever.
In this scenario, there are two distinct parts to the experience: the “general part” (sāmānya aṃśa), which is the “is-ness” or existence of the object, and the “particular part” (viśeṣa aṃśa), which is the specific nature of the rope. Adhyāsa occurs when we take the “is-ness” (which is real) and couple it with the “snake-ness” (which is projected from memory).
Superimposition of the Self and Not-Self
The primary relevance of adhyāsa in Advaita is its application to the Self (Ātman) and the not-Self (anātman). Just as the rope is mistaken for a snake, we mistakenly identify our true, limitless nature with the limited body, mind, and intellect.
This is a mutual superimposition:
- We superimpose the qualities of the not-Self (limitations, birth, death, and suffering) onto the Self.
- We superimpose the qualities of the Self (existence and consciousness) onto the inert body-mind.
This error gives rise to two pervasive delusions: ahaṃkāra (“I am this body/mind”) and mamakāra (“this object is mine”). When we say, “I am happy” or “I am old,” we are superimposing the changing states of the mind or body onto the unchanging Witness-Consciousness. Conversely, when we believe the body is conscious, we are attributing the Self’s nature to inert matter. This “mixing up” of the real and the unreal is considered the root cause of all suffering and the engine of saṃsāra, the cycle of birth and death.
Categories and Varieties of Adhyāsa
Advaita scholars differentiate between several types of superimposition to explain how the world-appearance persists even for those who possess knowledge.
- Nirupādhika Adhyāsa: This is superimposition without any external limiting factor, such as the rope-snake or the silver perceived in a seashell. In these cases, once the light of knowledge reveals the truth, the error and the appearance vanish simultaneously.
- Sopādhika Adhyāsa: This involves an external adjunct or upādhi. A common example is the sunrise: even though we know the earth rotates and the sun does not literally “rise,” the appearance of the rising sun persists because of the physical laws of perception. Similarly, the jñānī (enlightened person) continues to perceive the world and his body-mind even after realizing they are mithyā, because the physical laws governing the appearance (Īśvara’s māyā) remain in effect.
- Jñāna-adhyāsa vs. Artha-adhyāsa: Jñāna-adhyāsa is the cognitive error—the mistaken thought in the mind that “this is a snake”. Artha-adhyāsa refers to the false object itself appearing on the substratum, such as the mirage-water seen on sand. For the ignorant person, both are present; for the enlightened person, only the appearance (artha-adhyāsa) remains, while the cognitive mistake is gone.
The Causal Relationship with Ignorance
While the terms are often used interchangeably, many traditional teachers clarify that avidyā (Self-ignorance) is the cause, and adhyāsa (superimposition) is the effect. Adhyāsa occurs only in the waking and dream states where the mind is active; it is absent in deep sleep, even though ignorance remains present in a causal, unmanifest form.
Without the “concealing power” (āvaraṇa) of ignorance, we would see the rope as it is. Without the “projecting power” (vikṣepa), the mind would not manufacture the snake. Therefore, adhyāsa is the experiential manifestation of our lack of Self-knowledge. We suffer not just because we don’t know who we are, but because we actively believe we are something we are not.
Resolution Through Knowledge
The only remedy for adhyāsa is Self-knowledge (jñāna). Action (karma) cannot destroy adhyāsa because action is not opposed to ignorance; only knowledge can negate a cognitive error.
The process of removing adhyāsa is one of sublation (bādha), where a lower understanding is replaced by a higher truth. By following the systematic methodology of śravaṇa-manana-nididhyāsana—listening to the scriptures, resolving doubts, and assimilating the truth—the seeker eventually arrives at a certain conviction. The final “event” of enlightenment occurs when the mind takes the form of the undivided Absolute (akhaṇḍākāra vṛtti), permanently destroying the superimposition of limited individuality.
At this point, the “snake” of the separate ego is realized to be non-existent, and one is left with the undeniable reality of the “rope” of Brahman. The world appearance may continue, but the delusion of its independent reality is gone forever.
Analogy: The Cinema Screen
To better appreciate adhyāsa, consider a cinema screen. When a movie is projected, we see fires, floods, heroes, and villains. We may feel intense emotion—fear for the hero or anger at the villain—because we have superimposed the reality of the characters onto the screen. However, the screen itself is never burned by the projected fire nor made wet by the projected flood. Adhyāsa is the act of being so caught up in the drama that we forget the screen. Enlightenment is not the act of turning off the movie, but the realization that you are the screen, and the sound and fury of the film can never touch your true nature.